Brain Drain Factors as Determinants of Teachers’ Intention to Teach a Broad in the Philippine Basic Education
Keywords:
Brain drain factors; intention to teach abroad; push-pull factors; Philippine basic educationAbstract
Brain drain compromises teacher retention and continuity of teaching in developing countries, such as the Philippines. This study explored the brain drain factors predicting the intention of public school teachers in basic education to teach abroad. A descriptive-correlational research design was used, involving 342 public school teachers in Cebu, the Republic of the Philippines. A structured survey questionnaire was used to gather data on push and pull factors, and the intention to teach abroad; descriptive statistics, Pearson correlations, and multiple regression analyses were conducted. The results indicated a high intent to teach abroad and that most teachers agreed with actively considering overseas opportunities. Push and pull factors were both highly correlated with intention; however, regression indicated that only pull factors were significant (? = 0.371, p = 0.000), while push factors were not (? = 0.027, p = 0.638). The results imply that migration intentions are more influenced by expectations of opportunities abroad than by local dissatisfaction. This study adds to the literature by revealing a dominance of opportunity-driven motivators.
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.25.5.29
References
Abdallah Yassine, R., & Jacobs, R. L. (2025). Addressing brain drain through employee development: the interplay of organizational commitment, turnover intention, and individual differences in Lebanon’s health-care sector. European Journal of Training and Development, 49(1/2), 175–195. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-01-2024-0005
Adesote, A. S., & Osunkoya, O. A. (2018). The Brain Drain, Skilled Labor Migration and Its Impact on Africa’s Development, 1990s-2000s. Journal of Pan African Studies, 12(1), 120–132. https://openurl.ebsco.com/results?sid=ebsco:ocu:record&bquery=IS+0888-6601+AND+VI+12+AND+IP+1+AND+DT+2018&link_origin=www.google.com&searchDescription=Journal%20of%20Pan%20African%20Studies%2C%202018%2C%20Vol%2012%2C%20Issue%201
Adeyemi, R. A., Joel, A., Ebenezer, J. T., & Attah, E. Y. (2018). The effect of brain drain on the economic development of developing countries: Evidence from selected African countries. Journal of Health and Social Issues, 7(2), 66–76. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329814545_The_Effect_of_Brain_Drain_on_the_Economic_Development_of_Developing_Countries_Evidence_from_Selected_African_Countries
Alicamen, D. B. L., & Becamon, A. M. K. M. (2022). Overseas Teaching: The Voice of Filipino Early Childhood Education Teachers in Singapore. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 30(4), 1473–1494. https://doi.org/10.47836/pjssh.30.4.02
Arian, M., Soleimani, M., & Oghazian, M. B. (2018). Job satisfaction and the factors affecting satisfaction in nurse educators: A systematic review. Journal of Professional Nursing, 34(5), 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2018.07.004
Aytaç, S., & Ayd?n, G. (2019). Analysis of the effects of pull and push factors on brain drain: An example of Turkey. Journal of Social Economics Research, 6(2), 74–84. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.35.2019.62.74.84
Baluyos, G. R., Rivera, H. L., & Baluyos, E. L. (2019). Teachers’ job satisfaction and work performance. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 7(8), 206–221. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2019.78015
Benitez, J., Henseler, J., Castillo, A., & Schuberth, F. (2020). How to perform and report an impactful analysis using partial least squares: Guidelines for confirmatory and explanatory IS research. Information & Management, 57(2), 103168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2019.05.003
Bowen, D. H., & Mills, J. N. (2017). Changing the education workforce? The relationships among teacher quality, motivation, and performance pay. Teachers College Record, 119(4), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/01614681171190040
Bright, D., & Heyting, E. (2024). Exploring the motivations and career choices of expatriate teachers in international schools: Embracing personal growth, professional development, and teacher autonomy. International Journal of Educational Research, 127, 102426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2024.102426
Cervantes, M., & Guellec, D. (2002, January). The brain drain: old myths, new realities. (Brain drain). OECD Observer, 40+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A85012950/AONE?u=anon~51070063&sid=googleScholar&xid=f6f08be5
Commission on Filipinos Overseas. (2025). Compendium of CFO statistics. https://cms-cdn.e.gov.ph/CFO/pdf/Compendium%20of%20Statistics%202025_04%20November%202025_compressed.pdf
Costan, F., Gonzales, G., Gonzales, R., Valle, L., Dela Cruz, J., Alcantara, G., Mahilum, R., Lauro, M. D., Atibing, N. M., Burdeos, A., Yamagishi, K., & Ocampo, L. (2022). Teachers’ turnover intentions in view of implementing a flexible learning system: An extended theory of planned behavior. Sustainability, 14(20), 13009. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013009
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (6th ed.). Sage Publications. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1996-97121-000
Curtis, T., & Ledgerwood, J. R. (2018). Students’ motivations, perceived benefits and constraints towards study abroad and other international education opportunities. Journal of International Education in Business, 11(1), 63–78. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIEB-01-2017-0002
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
García-Hernández, L. F., Fulquez-Castro, S. C., Vázquez-García, J., & Lopez Ramirez, E. (2021). Organizational factors that affect job satisfaction and job performance in basic education teachers. European Journal of Contemporary Education, 10(4), 888–896. https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2021.4.888
Gonçalves, V. N., Ponchio, M. C., & Basílio, R. G. (2021). Women’s financial well?being: A systematic literature review and directions for future research. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 45(4), 824–843. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12673
Guenther, P., Guenther, M., Ringle, C. M., Zaefarian, G., & Cartwright, S. (2023). Improving PLS-SEM use for business marketing research. Industrial Marketing Management, 111, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2023.03.010
Gundlach, H. A. D., Slemp, G. R., & Hattie, J. (2024). A meta-analysis of the antecedents of teacher turnover and retention. Educational Research Review, 44, 100606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2024.100606
Guzeller, C. O., & Celiker, N. (2020). Examining the relationship between organizational commitment and turnover intention via a meta-analysis. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14(1), 102–120. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCTHR-05-2019-0094
Hagger, M. S., & Hamilton, K. (2024). Longitudinal tests of the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis. European Review of Social Psychology, 35(1), 198–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2023.2225897
Hair, J. F., Jr., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Danks, N. P., & Ray, S. (2021). Evaluation of reflective measurement models. In Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (pp. 75–90). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80519-7_4
Hashish, E. A., & Ashour, H. M. (2020). Determinants and mitigating factors of the brain drain among Egyptian nurses. Journal of Research in Nursing, 25(8), 699–719. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987120940381
Hauerwas, L. B., Skawinski, S. F., & Ryan, L. B. (2017). The longitudinal impact of teaching abroad: An analysis of intercultural development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 67, 202–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.06.009
Ker, H. W., Lee, Y. H., & Ho, S. M. (2022). The Impact of Work Environment and Teacher Attributes on Teacher Job Satisfaction. Educational Process: International Journal, 11(1), 28–39. https://dx.doi.org/10.22521/edupij.2022.111.3
Lei, Y., Pan, F., & Guo, Q. (2024). A longitudinal analysis of the reciprocal relationship between teacher job satisfaction, workplace climate, and early childhood teachers’ turnover intention. Acta Psychologica, 251, 104559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104559
Macapagong, E., Maguate, G., & Geroso, M. J. S. (2023). Living and teaching internationally: Teachers’ experiences, prospects and challenges. Valley International Journal Digital Library, 2882–2894. https://doi.org/10.18535/ijsrm/v11i09.el04
Martinsone, B., Rutkien?, A., & Žydži?naite, V. (2024). Factors associated with teachers’ intention to leave their profession: teacher portraits from two European countries. Frontiers in psychology, 15, 1450424. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1450424
Modesto, O. P. (2020). A phenomenological study of Filipino immigrant teachers in South Texas. The Qualitative Report, 25(8), 3149–3162. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol25/iss8/18
Mohamed, A., Dasoo, N., & Israel, H. (2024). South African Expatriate Teachers in the Gulf Arab States: Push and Pull Factors for Leaving. Migration and Development, 13(2), 274–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/21632324241306845
Moon, B. (2007). Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers: A global overview of current policies and practices. UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000151685
Muthanna, A., & Sang, G. (2018). Brain drain in higher education: Critical voices on teacher education in Yemen. London Review of Education, 16(2). https://doi.org/10.18546/LRE.16.2.09
Ndende, T. (2021). Examining the reasons behind teachers leaving the profession [Master of Management Sciences, Durban University of Technology]. https://openscholar.dut.ac.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/8fc40d19-4167-4ac7-ad17-5a16f1fff84e/content
Panagiotakopoulos, A. (2020). Investigating the factors affecting brain drain in Greece. World Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development, 16(3), 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1108/WJEMSD-10-2019-0076
Parkhouse, H., Tichnor-Wagner, A., Cain, J. M., & Glazier, J. (2016). “You don’t have to travel the world”: Accumulating experiences toward globally competent teaching. Teaching Education, 27(3), 267–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210.2016.1143141
Podolsky, A., Kini, T., Bishop, J., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2016). Solving the teacher shortage. Learning Policy Institute. https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/solving-teacher-shortage
Rende, K., Fromson, K., Jones, M. G., & Ennes, M. (2021). The privilege of low pay: Informal educators’ perspectives on workforce equity and diversity. Journal of Museum Education, 46(4), 430–440. https://doi.org/10.1080/10598650.2021.1975484
Rigby, C. S., & Ryan, R. M. (2018). Self-determination theory in human resource development: New directions and practical considerations. Advances in developing human resources, 20(2), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422318756954
Savicki, V. (Ed.). (2023). Developing intercultural competence and transformation: Theory, research, and application in international education. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003444169
Schnusenberg, O., De Jong, P., & Goel, L. (2012). Predicting study abroad intentions based on the theory of planned behavior. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 10(3), 337–361. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4609.2012.00350.x
Serin, H. (2017). The effects of teaching abroad on personal and professional development. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies, 4(1), 110–114. https://doi.org/10.23918/ijsses.v4i1p110
Shaoan, M. M. R., Namanyane, T., Feng, M., & Arif, M. (2025, February). A systematic literature review on the importance of teacher recruitment and retention in global educational reform. In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 9, p. 1447752). Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1447752
Silvestre, M. G. P., & Carlos, M. R. E. (2023). Probing Employees’ Issues on Salary Scheme Policy: Exploratory Approach. Southeast Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(3). https://www.research.cmc.edu.ph/index.php/journals/article/view/137
Spring, J. (2008). Globalization of education: An introduction. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315795843
Sriadmitum, I. (2023). Leadership style, work environment, and compensation on job satisfaction and teacher performance. Journal of Applied Business and Technology, 4(1), 79–92. https://doi.org/10.35145/jabt.v4i1.122
Stromquist, N. P. (2018). The global status of teachers and the teaching profession. Education International. https://ei-ie-al.org/sites/default/files/docs/2018_ei_research_statusofteachers_eng_final.pdf
Sumardiyanto, S., Dassucik, D., & Rasyidi, A. H. (2025). Impact of Independent Learning policy and Compensation on Teacher Performance Through Job Satisfaction as a Mediating Variable. Consilium: Education and Counseling Journal, 5(1), 584–597. https://doi.org/10.36841/consilium.v5i1.6053
Taherdoost, H. (2016). Sampling methods in research methodology: How to choose a sampling technique for research. International Journal of Academic Research in Management, 5(2), 18–27. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3205035
Tahseen, S., & Hadi, N. U. (2015). Factors influencing teachers’ performance and retention. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6(1), 233–244. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n1p233
Thapa, B., & Shrestha, K. (2017). Factors influencing brain drain among Nepalese nurses. Kathmandu University Medical Journal (KUMJ), 15(57), 35–39. https://kumj.com.np/issue/57/35-39.pdf
Tria, J. Z. (2023). Job satisfaction among educators: A systematic review. International Journal of Professional Development, Learners and Learning, 5(2), ep2310. https://doi.org/10.30935/ijpdll/13212
Urba?ski, M. (2022). Comparing push and pull factors affecting migration. Economies, 10(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10010021
Vazzana, C. M., & Rudi-Polloshka, J. (2019). Appalachia has got talent, but why does it flow away? A study on the determinants of brain drain from rural USA. Economic Development Quarterly, 33(3), 220–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891242419852207
Victoria, J. V., Fernandez, S. O., Lucas-Go, M. L., Wei, X., & Cuvin, E. D. (2018). Filipino teachers’ experiences in foreign schools. International Journal for Innovation Education and Research, 6(10), 41–52. https://doi.org/10.31686/ijier.vol6.iss10.1164
Wang, L., Miao, C. J., Ye, J. H., Huang, X., Nong, L., & Nong, W. (2023). A study on the influencing factors and response strategies for young teachers from Taiwan to teach in universities in China: a push-pull-mooring model perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1182982. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1182982
Wanniarachchi, H. E., Kumara Jayakody, J. A. S., & Jayawardana, A. K. L. (2022). An organizational perspective on brain drain: What can organizations do to stop it? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 33(8), 1489–1525. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2020.1758745
Yeh, A. (2025). “Go lang, teach!”: Understanding the motivations of Filipino migrant English teachers in Taiwan. System, 131, 103650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2025.103650
Young, D. G., & Keup, J. R. (2018). To pay or not to pay: The influence of compensation as an external reward on learning outcomes of peer leaders. Journal of College Student Development, 59(2), 159–176. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2018.0015
Zhou, H., & Ma, J. (2022). Organizational justice and teachers’ turnover intention in primary and secondary schools: The importance of sustainable salary management. Sustainability, 14(20), 13314. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013314
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Ryan Mesa Mahilum, Romel Cayao Mutya
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
All articles published by IJLTER are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No-Derivatives 4.0 International License (CCBY-NC-ND4.0).
