The Mediating Role of Financial Literacy between Entrepreneurial Attitude and Intention among Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Students in Nigeria
Keywords:
Attitude towards Entrepreneurship; Entrepreneurial Intention; Financial Literacy; Nigeria; TVET Students.Abstract
This study assessed Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) students’ levels of financial literacy, attitude towards entrepreneurship, and entrepreneurial intention in Nigeria. It also examined financial literacy as a mediator in the relationship between Attitude towards Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Intention. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) served as the conceptual foundation for this study. The study adopted a quantitative research design, and the participants consisted of students selected from a purposively chosen TVET institution (Federal College of Education, Technical, Ekiadolor). Two hundred and thirty-six (236) TVET students selected based on a simple random sampling technique participated in the study, A structured questionnaire, consisting of demographic information and 19 items, was adapted to measure financial literacy, attitudes, and entrepreneurial intention, serving as the data collection instrument. The questionnaire was validated by experts and pilot-tested among TVET students who are not part of the target population of this study. A Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient of 0.70, 0.74, and 0.71 were obtained for financial literacy, attitude towards entrepreneurship, and entrepreneurship intention, respectively. Data generated from the study were analysed using mean and standard deviation, including the weighted average (W.A.) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) approach used to test the study’s hypotheses. Results revealed that while TVET students exhibited a high level of financial literacy and a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship, they, demonstrated a moderate entrepreneurial intention. The study also established a positive relationship between attitude towards entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intention. Furthermore, financial literacy was found to mediate the relationship between TVET students’ attitudes toward entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intention in the study context. Based on the results, it is evident that to effectively translate entrepreneurial intention into action, a multi-stakeholder approach is essential. This requires TVET institutions to embed financial literacy and attitude-shaping training within their curricular, supported by government policies and industry partnerships that provide practical mentorship and funding opportunities.
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.24.12.23
References
Abubakar, H. A. (2015). Entrepreneurship development and financial literacy in Africa. World Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development, 11(4), 281–294. https://doi.org/10.1108/wjemsd-04-2015-0020
Adeniyi, A. O., Derera, E., & Gamede, V. (2022). Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy for Entrepreneurial Readiness in a Developing Context: A Survey of Exit Level Students at TVET Institutions in Nigeria. SAGE Open, 12(2), 215824402210950. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221095059
Ahamed, A. J. (2025). Chapter 2 Financial Self-Efficacy. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5149116
Ahmad, S., & Naveed, N. (2024). Factors Influencing Entrepreneurial Intention: The Mediating Role of Access to Finance and Incubation Center. Deleted Journal, 13(1), 699–715. https://doi.org/10.62345/jads.2024.13.1.58
Ahmed, M., Hassan, H., Muhammad, K., Ul, S., Manzoor, H., Ali, A., Wahab, K., & Abdul, A. (2021). Influence of Financial Literacy and Educational Skills on Entrepreneurial Intent: Empirical Evidence from Young Entrepreneurs of Pakistan. Journal of Asian Finance, 8(1), 697–710. https://doi.org/10.13106/jafeb.2021.vol8.no1.697
Ajzen, I. (1991). The Theory of Planned Behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
Ajzen, I. (2005). Attitudes, Personality and Behavior. Open University Press.
Al Halbusi, H., Soto-Acosta, P., & Popa, S. (2023). Analysing e-entrepreneurial intention from the theory of planned behaviour: the role of social media use and perceived social support. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 19, 1611–1642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-023-00866-1
Alamineh, H. G. (2022). A Comparative Study on Influencing Factors of University and Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Graduate Students Intentions Toward Entrepreneurship: Evidence from Addis Ababa City, Ethiopia. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40497-022-00310-8
Alamineh, H. H. (2020). Students’ Entrepreneurial Intentions and Determinants in Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Colleges: Lessons from Gurage Zone, Ethiopia. Management, 10(3), 71–80.
Aldi, B. E., Herdjiono, I., Maulany, G., & Fitriani. (2019). The Influence of Financial Literacy on Entrepreneurial Intention. Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research (AEBMR), 92, 700–703. https://doi.org/10.2991/icame-18.2019.74
Alshebami, A. S., & Al Marri, S. H. (2022). The Impact of Financial Literacy on Entrepreneurial Intention: The Mediating Role of Saving Behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.911605
Amofah, K., & Saladrigues, R. (2022). Impact of attitude towards entrepreneurship education and role models on entrepreneurial intention. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-022-00197-5
Amofah, K., Saladrigues, R., & Akwaa-Sekyi, E. K. (2020). Entrepreneurial intentions among MBA students. Cogent Business & Management, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2020.1832401
Anjum, T., Farrukh, M., Heidler, P., & Díaz Tautiva, J. A. (2020). Entrepreneurial Intention: Creativity, Entrepreneurship, and University Support. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 7(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc7010011
Aziz, A., Metro, P., Bahru, J., & SEBLI, K. (2023, May 8). Financial Literacy and Entrepreneurial Intention Among TVET Graduates International TVET & Entrepreneurship Conference (ITEC 2023) . https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380399747_Financial_Literacy_and_Entrepreneurial_Intention_Among_TVET_Graduates_INTERNATIONAL_TVET_ENTREPRENEURSHIP_CONFERENCE_ITEC_2023_TVET_and_Entrepreneurship_for_Sustainable_Development_11-12_October_2023_
Bakar, K. A., Feisal, A., Mohamad, M. A., Ahmad, N. N., Sahlan, Mohd. K., & Harahap, A. (2024). Entrepreneurial Intention Challenge in TVET Education. Journal of Technical Education and Training, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.30880/jtet.2024.16.01.011
Bayona-Oré, S. (2023). The Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Entrepreneurial Intention of University Students. Journal of Turkish Science Education. https://doi.org/10.36681/tused.2023.008
Blay, M. W., Musah, A., Ayariga, C., & Okyere, D. O. (2024). Determinants of Financial Literacy and its Effect on Stock Market Participation among University Students in Ghana. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 14(2), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijefi.15613
Blessing, O. (2025, May 31). Federal Government Launches TVET Initiative To Empower Nigerian Youth With. MSME Africa. https://msmeafricaonline.com/federal-government-launches-tvet-initiative-to-empower-nigerian-youth-with-industry-relevant-skills/
Burchi, A., W?odarczyk, B., Szturo, M., & Martelli, D. (2021). The Effects of Financial Literacy on Sustainable Entrepreneurship. Sustainability, 13(9), 5070. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095070
Dahalan, D., D’Silva, J. L., Ismail, I. A., & Mohamed, N. A. (2020). Entrepreneurship Readiness among Students of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Institutions in Malaysia. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 10(15), 164–175. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/V10-I15/8241
Dayo, A. J., Jatoi, M. M., & Shaikh, N. A. (2023). The Role of Financial and Entrepreneurial Literacy in Developing Graduate Entrepreneurial Intentions: Larkana and Sukkur, Sindh, Pakistan. Human Nature Journal of Social Sciences, 4(1), 188–203. https://doi.org/10.71016/hnjss/chp5b253
Deli, I., & Khan, N. S. (2024). The role of self-efficacy: Entrepreneurial knowledge and attitude toward entrepreneurship to entrepreneurial intention. Journal of Management and Business Insight, 2(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.12928/jombi.v2i1.805
Duong, C. D. (2021). Exploring the link between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intentions: the moderating role of educational fields. Education + Training, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print). https://doi.org/10.1108/et-05-2021-0173
Duong, C. D. (2022). Entrepreneurial fear of failure and the attitude-intention-behavior gap in entrepreneurship: A moderated mediation model. The International Journal of Management Education, 20(3), 100707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2022.100707
Emah, I. E., Doneys, P., Kusakabe, K., & Pathak, S. (2025). Skill acquisition in TVET and access to employment in Nigeria: a gender perspective. Frontiers in Sociology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2025.1577765
Ergün, K. (2017). Financial literacy among university students: A study in eight European countries. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 42(1), 2–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12408
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Gambarawa, J. A., & Idris, S. (2024). Determinants of Entrepreneurial Intentions among the Undergraduate Students of Umaru Musa Yar’adua University, Katsina. UMYU Journal of Accounting and Finance Research, 6(1), 91–104. https://doi.org/10.61143/umyu-jafr.6(1)2024.008
Gao, Y., Wang, X., Lu, J., Chen, B., & Morrin, K. (2024). Entrepreneurial fear of failure among college students: A scoping review of literature from 2010 to 2023. Heliyon, 10(10), e31072–e31072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31072
Gathergood, J. (2011). Self-Control, Financial Literacy and Consumer Over-Indebtedness. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1873369
Gayathri, T., & Ganesan, S. (2023). Impact of Financial Education and Literacy on Investment Behaviour. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, 11(11), 2668–2687. https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2023.56808
Ghimire, B., Dahal, R. K., & Joshi, S. P. (2023). The Effect of Financial Literacy and Entrepreneurship Education on Students’ Intentions to Pursue Entrepreneurial Careers. Pravaha, 29(1), 79–88. https://doi.org/10.3126/pravaha.v29i1.71408
Glaser, M., & Walther, T. (2014). Run, Walk, or Buy? Financial Literacy, Dual-Process Theory, and Investment Behavior. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2167270
Guo, Q., Qian, Y., Tan, W., & Xie, Z. (2024). Does financial literacy drive entrepreneurship in rural China? Finance Research Letters, 61, 105046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2024.105046
Hair, J. F., Risher, J. J., Sarstedt, M., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 31(1), 2–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203
Ibrahim, W. N. A., Bakar, Ab. R., Asimiran, S., Mohamed, S., & Zakaria, N. S. (2015). Impact of Entrepreneurship Education on the Entrepreneurial Intentions of Students in Technical and Vocational Education and Training Institutions (TVET) In Malaysia. International Education Studies, 8(12), 141. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v8n12p141
Jena, R. K. (2020). Measuring the impact of business management Student’s attitude towards entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial intention: A case study. Computers in Human Behavior, 107, 106275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106275
John, P., Bagsic, E. G., Caezzer, J., Lauresta, C. J., & Vetuz, M. M. (2024). Financial Literacy Among the Senior High School Students: Basis for Financial Stewardship Plan. International Journal of Advanced Engineering, Management and Science, 10(3), 01-12. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijaems.103.1
Johnson, A. T., & Folahan, O. O. (2020). Critique of the National Policy on Technical, Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Nigeria. In The Federal Polytechnic. https://eprints.federalpolyilaro.edu.ng/1472/1/4645064.pdf
Kang, G.-L., Park, C.-W., & Jang, S.-H. (2024). A Study on the Impact of Financial Literacy and Digital Capabilities on Entrepreneurial Intention: Mediating Effect of Entrepreneurship. Behavioral Sciences, 14(2), 121–121. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14020121
Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). The Guilford Press.
Krokeyi, W. S., & Amaegberi, M. (2024). Entrepreneurship and Economic Development in Nigeria. Social Sciences Journal of Policy Review and Development Strategies, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.48028/iiprds/ssjprds.v6.i1.16
Kwami, U. A. (2024). Repositioning Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) for Youth Empowerment and Entrepreneurship: An Agenda for Renewed Hope in Nigeria. Advanced Journal of Research in Education, 9(4). https://bwjournal.org/index.php/bsjournal/article/view/1751/1594
Lambert, E., Deyganto, K. O., & Algasse, K. (2023). The Role of Financial Literacy on Sustainable Development of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Africa. Qeios. https://doi.org/10.32388/A0KEDT
Lechuga Sancho, M. P., Martín-Navarro, A., & Ramos-Rodríguez, A. R. (2018). Will they end up doing what they like? the moderating role of the attitude towards entrepreneurship in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions. Studies in Higher Education, 45(2), 416–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1539959
Li, R., & Qian, Y. (2019). Entrepreneurial participation and performance: the role of financial literacy. Management Decision, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print). https://doi.org/10.1108/md-11-2018-1283
Lihua, D. (2022). An Extended Model of the Theory of Planned Behavior: An Empirical Study of Entrepreneurial Intention and Entrepreneurial Behavior in College Students. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.627818
Liñeiro, A. B., Romero, A., & Montes, J. (2024). Exploring entrepreneurial intentions and motivations: a comparative analysis of opportunity-driven and necessity-driven entrepreneurs. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-024-00366-8
Malebana, J. (2014). Entrepreneurial intentions of South African rural university students: A test of the theory of planned behaviour. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 6(2), 130–143. https://ojs.amhinternational.com/index.php/jebs/article/view/476/476
Manshi, D. D., & Jayabalan, J. (2024). Exploring the Impact of Financial Literacy on Investment Behavior among College Students. Shanlax International Journal of Management, 11(S1-Mar), 44–50. https://doi.org/10.34293/management.v11is1-mar.8057
Martins, J. M., Shahzad, M. F., & Xu, S. (2023). Factors influencing entrepreneurial intention to initiate new ventures: evidence from university students. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-023-00333-9
Maulias, J. A., Abrencia, K. M., Amar, N. M., Baldesco, J. B., Lee, K., Jean, R., Ezekiel, H., Luzon, D. J., Anthony, J., Porras, K. A., Valiente, J. P., Joy, K., & Marie, A. (2024). Financial Literacy and Self-Control as the Predicting Variables to the Financial Behavior of Senior High School Students. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, VIII(IV), 2371–2379. https://doi.org/10.47772/ijriss.2024.804239
Mekonnen, M., & Tamirat, T. (2019). Assessment of Motivational Factors and Challenges to Become an Entrepreneur (The Case of North Gondar TVET Graduates). Research Journal of Social Science & Management - RJSSM, 8(11). https://www.studocu.com/row/document/university-of-gondar/business-research/assessment-of-motivational-factors-and-c/107431669
Mfazi, S., & Elliott, R. M. (2022). The Theory of Planned Behaviour as a model for understanding Entrepreneurial Intention: The moderating role of culture. Journal of Contemporary Management, 19(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.35683/jcm20123.133
Mughal, I., Maitlo, A. A., Khan, D., Nazir, S., & Hifza, G. (2024). Mediating Effect of Students Entrepreneurial Attitude in Relationship of Financial Literacy and Financial Behavior on Entrepreneurial Intention. Deleted Journal, 13(1), 436–452. https://doi.org/10.62345/jads.2024.13.1.37
Muralidhar, A. (2017). Addressing Financial Illiteracy Through Financial Innovation: The Case for Goal-Specific Bonds the Embed Inflation and Compounding. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3093617
Mutmainnah, M., Muis, I., & Hamid, A. N. (2024). Fear of failure and Entrepreneurial intentions in University Students. Journal of Educational, Health and Community Psychology, 13(2), 531. https://doi.org/10.12928/jehcp.v13i2.28074
Nanda, D., & Mulyadi, H. (2025). Why is it important? Financial literacy in students in entrepreneurship: A systematic literature review. F1000Research, 14, 138–138. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160829.1
Nayak, N. V. (2024). “Empowering Growth: The Catalytic Role of Entrepreneurship in Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs).” Tuijin Jishu/Journal of Propulsion Technology, 45(02), 2713–2722. https://doi.org/10.52783/tjjpt.v45.i02.6323
Odeyemi, V. (2022, November 28). MSMEs generate 84% employment in Nigeria - ILO. MSME Africa. https://msmeafricaonline.com/msmes-generate-84-employment-in-nigeria-ilo/
Odor, H. O., Martins-Emesom, J. N., & Bakwuye, C. O. (2019). Entrepreneurship Education and Entrepreneurial Intention Among Students of Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi Uku, Delta State of Nigeria. European Journal of Business and Management, 11(20). https://doi.org/10.7176/ejbm/11-20-09
Perera, H., & Nishantha, B. (2020). Determinants of Entrepreneurial Intentions: Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) In Sri Lanka. International Journal of Management, Innovation & Entrepreneurial Research, 6(1), 78–87. https://doi.org/10.18510/ijmier.2020.6111
Peters, R. (2020). Impact of Financial Literacy on Entrepreneurial Growth. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1681286/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Philipp, J. (2023, January 29). How Entrepreneurship in Nigeria Alleviates Poverty. The Borgen Project. https://borgenproject.org/entrepreneurship-in-nigeria/
Prevett, P. S., Pampaka, M., Farnsworth, V. L., Kalambouka, A., & Shi, X. (2020). A Situated Learning Approach to Measuring Financial Literacy Self-Efficacy of Youth. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 31(2), JFCP-18-00038. https://doi.org/10.1891/jfcp-18-00038
Rapina, R., Meythi, M., Rahmatika, D. N., & Mardiana, M. (2023). The impact of financial literacy and financial behavior in entrepreneurial motivation – evidence from Indonesia. Cogent Education, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2023.2282827
Renko, M., Kroeck, K. G., & Bullough, A. (2011). Expectancy theory and nascent entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 39(3), 667–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9354-3
Roslan, R., Misnan, N. I., & Musa, D. (2020). The Influence of Higher Learning Environment and Role Model towards an Entrepreneurial Intention among TVET Students. Jurnal Intelek, 15(1), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.24191/ji.v15i1.276
Sabah, S. (2016). Entrepreneurial Intention: Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Moderation Effect of Start-Up Experience. Entrepreneurship - Practice-Oriented Perspectives. https://doi.org/10.5772/65640
Senaya, G. M. (2025). Mitigating financial risks for entrepreneurs in emerging markets through financial literacy. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 25(1), 602–620. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.25.1.0059
Shah, N., Bano, S., Saraih, U. N., Abdelwahed, N. A. A., & Soomro, B. A. (2024). Boosting entrepreneurial intentions among potential TVET entrepreneurs of higher education institutes. Education + Training. https://doi.org/10.1108/et-07-2023-0300
Sousa-Filho, J. M. de, Lessa, B. de S., Garcia-Salirrosas, E. E., & Castro, J. L. de C. (2023). The role of fear of failure on students’ entrepreneurial intentions in Latin America. The International Journal of Management Education, 21(3), 100880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100880
Stella, G. P., Filotto, U., & Cervellati, E. M. (2020). A Proposal for a New Financial Literacy Questionnaire. International Journal of Business and Management, 15(2), 34. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v15n2p34
Stolper, O. A., & Walter, A. (2017). Financial literacy, financial advice, and financial behavior. Journal of Business Economics, 87(5), 581–643. springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11573-017-0853-9
Sufian, A., & Wen, Y. Y. (2024). The Influence of Financial Literacy on Entrepreneurial Intention among University Students in Malaysia. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 14(8), 2582–2595. http://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v14-i8/22288
Tchokoté, I. D., Bawack, R., & Nana, A. (2025). Attitude over norms: Reevaluating the dominance of attitude in shaping entrepreneurial intentions among higher education students in Global South Countries. The International Journal of Management Education, 23(2), 101129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2024.101129
Vamvaka, V., Stoforos, C., Palaskas, T., & Botsaris, C. (2020). Attitude toward entrepreneurship, perceived behavioral control, and entrepreneurial intention: dimensionality, structural relationships, and gender differences. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-020-0112-0
Van Gelderen, M., Brand, M., van Praag, M., Bodewes, W., Poutsma, E., & van Gils, A. (2008). Explaining entrepreneurial intentions by means of the theory of planned behaviour. Career Development International, 13(6), 538–559. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430810901688
Vargas-Sánchez, A., Plaza-Mejía, M. Á., & Porras-Bueno, N. (2016). Attitude. Encyclopedia of Tourism, 58–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8_11
Varma, C., & Malik, S. (2023). TVET in the 21st Century: A Focus on Innovative Teaching and Competency Indicators. IntechOpen EBooks. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112516
Wu, X.-S., & Tian, Y. (2022). Predictors of Entrepreneurship Intention Among Students in Vocational Colleges: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.797790
Yildirim, S., Yildirim, M. M., & Vardari, L. (2024). The Effect of Undergraduate Programs on Financial Literacy Level: The Case of Kosovo. Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, 14(3), 170–182. https://doi.org/10.47750/pegegog.14.03.16
Zhang, P., Wang, D. D., & Owen, C. L. (2015). A Study of Entrepreneurial Intention of University Students. Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2014-0004
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Sunday Abidemi Itasanmi, Oluwatoyin Ayodele Ajani, Godwin Beshibeshebe Ushie, Cathrine Njong Tawo, Elizabeth Mojisola Ogunmoye
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
All articles published by IJLTER are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No-Derivatives 4.0 International License (CCBY-NC-ND4.0).
